Overview

• Clear
• Concise
• Accurate

When writing your manuscript, be as brief as possible without omitting essential details. Keep it simple! Simple language is usually clearer; it is more precise and concise than complex language. Though you will often be describing something that is sophisticated, using unnecessarily complicated language will confuse the reader and weaken your message.
Ways to keep your manuscript clear, concise, and precise:

• Only one idea per sentence
• Use the active voice, not the passive voice, when possible
• Delete unnecessary or vague words and replace them with more specific words
• Avoid circular sentences and redundancies

Comparisons (between, among, like, with, than).Comparisons are frequently made in the Results sections of papers. When making a comparison, remember to:

• Compare Apples
• Compare “like” with “like”
• Avoid being vague – be as specific as possible
  

Words such as “reduced,” “increased,” and “decreased” can only be used to compare something to the way it was before, not to compare two different things. To compare two different things (e.g., groups of patients), use words such as “higher,” “shorter,” or “more”. Use “between” when comparing two things, but “among” for comparisons of more than two things

Examples:

It doesn’t make sense to compare material to a landfill. Instead, we need to compare like with like – that is, material from the riverbank with material from the landfill.

Here “those” means “expression levels of p53.” It’s best not to repeat the same words in a sentence, since it can bore readers.

The first sentence makes the reader wonder “Faster than what?”

“Reduced” cannot be used to compare two different things.

A noun is a word that refers to a person, thing, or idea. A proper noun is the specific name of a person, organization, or location. Proper nouns always have their first letter capitalized.

Examples:

The first and last names of a person:
Gillian Welch, Steve Jobs, Derk Haank, Hillary Clinton

Names of companies and organizations:
World Wildlife Fund, United Nations, Volkswagen, Springer

Countries and cities:
Australia, India, Germany, New York, London, Beijing

Months of the year, days of the week
January, Monday

Examples of when not to capitalize:

Nouns that refer to more than one thing:
The experiment was performed at two centers (see tables 3 and 4)

Names of chemicals or generic drugs:
acetaminophen, benzene

There are three articles in English: a, an, and the. These are classified as indefinite (a and an) or definite (the). Indefinite articles refer to something not specifically known to the person you are communicating with. In other words, a and an are used before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not mentioned before.

Examples:

"I witnessed an eclipse this morning."
"I wrote a laboratory report before lunch."

A and an are also used when talking about your profession.
"I am an ethicist."
"I am a scientist."

Use a when the noun you are referring to starts with a consonant sound when pronounced.
“a city”, “a factory”, “a hotel”, “a university”

If the word begins with a vowel sound when pronounced, then use an.
“an hour”, “an umbrella”, “an owl”, “an igloo”.

Use the when you know that the reader or listener knows or can identify what particular person or thing you are discussing.
“The results were confirmed.”
"Did you unlock the door?"

You should also use the when the thing you are discussing has been mentioned previously; e.g.,
“Each vector encoded a protein with a different reporter molecule. The size of the protein was..."

We also use the when talking about geographical features.
“the Tropic of Capricorn”, “the English channel”, “the Himalayas”.

We also use the preceding certain nouns when it is known that there is only one of something.
“the sun”, “the world”, “the Imperial Palace”

‘Respectively’ is an adverb that is often misused by non-native English speakers. Use 'respectively' only if your sentence would be unclear without it. If we wanted to describe this data in the text of a manuscript, it would be written as:

Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen detector flows were set at 85, 7, and 4 mL/min, respectively.

This makes it clear that the first gas mentioned goes with the first number, the second gas goes with the second number, etc.

More examples:
BAD: The two values were 143.2 and 21.6, respectively.
GOOD: The two values were 143.2 and 21.6.
BAD: The two tubes were labeled B and S, respectively.
GOOD: The tubes containing blood and saline were labeled B and S,
respectively.

Spell out numbers one through nine, except in the case of units of measure or time. For these, and for values of 10 and higher, use Arabic numerals.

Always spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence if the sentence cannot be rearranged to avoid starting with a number:
Fifteen days previously… not 15 days previously…

For a mixture of numbers in one sentence, use a consistent number style:
The sample included 34 men with type A blood, 15 with type B, and 3 with type AB.

Use different number styles when putting two numbers next to each other:
Five 50-kg women, not 5 50-kg women

Tip!
The AMA Manual of Style is a good guide to the use of numerals and units.
Spacing. Generally, in the life sciences there should be no space between a numeral and a percent sign: 48%. In the physical sciences, a space is sometimes included: 48 %. Check the instructions to authors or sample reports in your target journal. Use a space between a numeral and a unit of measurement: 178 mm.

Decimals:
Use a zero before a decimal point, e.g., 0.28 mL, except when reporting P values: P = .04.

Rates, proportions and fractions:
Use a virgule (/) for proportions, and a colon (:) for ratios:
About 1/3 of samples…
The ratio was 3:4.5…
The rate averaged 40/100,000 people…

Spell out fractions that modify nouns:
Half the cases showed…
A two-thirds majority…

When writing a range or series, give the unit after the final item:
BAD: 25 mg–30 mg
GOOD: 25–30 mg

Do not insert a space on either side of an en-dash (–):
BAD:The three sites — Taipei, Shanghai, and Bangkok — all experienced severe weather events in the time period studied.
GOOD: The three sites—Taipei, Shanghai, and Bangkok—all experienced severe weather events in the time period studied.

Should you use UK or US spelling?
American journals usually require US spelling and British journals usually require UK spelling, but many journals accept either form. If the journal’s Instructions for Authors do not specify which to use, just remember to be consistent with the spellings throughout your manuscript.

Formatting your manuscript:
It is important to format your manuscript according to your target journal’s requirements, which can be found in the Instructions for Authors. This will speed up the submission process because the journal’s editorial team will not have to send your manuscript back to you for formatting. It can also increase your chances of success because you will not omit materials that the journal might require, and editors will see you as more professional. For Springer journals, simply find the Springer webpage for the journal and click on the “Instructions for Authors” link in the column on the right side of the screen.

Tip!
Before writing a complete draft of your manuscript, it is a good idea to select an initial target journal. Read the formatting requirements for the journal on its website, THEN write your draft. This could save you a lot of time, as you won’t have to reformat an already-written manuscript after selecting the journal! Review all guidelines and ensure that your manuscript meets them. Have you:

• Obeyed all word and character limits (title, running title, abstract, manuscript text)?
  
• Included all required sections?
• Met language requirements (US or UK English)?
• Supplied all requested contact information?
• Inserted figures in the correct location (in text, end of manuscript, separate files)?
• Correctly formatted references?
• Used the correct file format for your images (.jpg, .png, .pdf, .ppt)?
• Stated ANY conflicts of interest?
  
• Obtained consent from ALL authors?
  

Tip!
Some journals provide templates to assist authors. Also look for template style files for use with your reference manager.

Tip!
Microsoft Word can help you with correct spellings. Simply select all of the text, then go to Tools>Language and choose the kind of English you want to use. Misspelled words should now be underlined in red — if not, be sure to turn on “Check spelling as you type” under Preferences > Spelling and Grammar.

References serve many purposes in a scientific manuscript. They:

• Establish where ideas came from
  
• Give evidence for claims
• Connect readers to other research
• Provide a context for your work
• Show that there is interest in this field of research
  

Tip!
Using a reference manager will help you keep track of publications that you have reviewed. These tools also make it easy to format, add, and remove references in your manuscript. Because references have an important role in many parts of a manuscript, failure to sufficiently cite other work can reduce your chances of being published. Every statement of fact or description of previous findings requires a supporting reference.

Tip!
Be sure to cite publications whose results disagree with yours. Not citing conflicting work will make readers wonder whether you are really familiar with the research literature. Citing conflicting work is also a chance to explain why you think your results are different. It is also important to be concise. You need to meet all the above needs without overwhelming the reader with too many references—only the most relevant and recent articles need to be cited. There is no correct number of references for a manuscript, but be sure to check the journal’s guidelines to see whether it has limits on numbers of references.

Tip!
Never cite a publication based on what you have read in a different publication (such as a review), or based only on the publication’s abstract. These may mislead you and, importantly, readers. Read the publication itself before you cite it, and then check the accuracy of the citation again before submitting your manuscript.

Establishing the origin of ideas
When you refer to an idea or theory, it is important to let your readers know which researcher(s) came up with the idea. By citing publications that have influenced your own work, you give credit to the authors and help others evaluate the importance of a particular publications. Acknowledging others’ contributions is also an important ethical principle.

Justify claims
In a scientific manuscript, all statements must be supported with evidence. This evidence can come from the results of the current research, common knowledge, or from previous publications. A citation after a claim makes it clear which previous study supports the claim.

Connect with other research
Researchers use forward and reverse citations to find manuscripts related to those they have already read. So when you cite others’ manuscripts, you increase the visibility of your own.

Provide a context for your work
By highlighting related works, citations help show how a manuscript fits into the bigger picture of scientific research. When readers understand what previous studies found and what puzzles or controversies your study relates to, they will better understand the meaning of your work.

Show there is interest your field of research
Citations show that other researchers are performing work similar to your own. Having current citations will help journal editors see that there is a potential audience for your manuscript.

The colon “:” and semicolon “;” are two punctuation marks that are often misused.

A colon is used to introduce a list or a clause that explains the clause before the colon:
There are a number of Springer journals that accept manuscripts dealing with organic chemistry: Organic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters, Chemistry of Natural Compounds, the Journal of Molecular Modeling, and The Protein Journal.

Semicolons are used in two ways:

1. To separate two independent clauses (clauses that could be complete sentences by themselves) if you do not use a connecting word like “and” or “while” between them.
   
2. To separate items in a list if some items in the list have commas within them. In other words, semicolons are used instead of commas if commas would be confusing.

Examples:
The volcano erupted unexpectedly; magma flowed toward three major cities at an alarming rate.
These two clauses could be separate sentences: “The volcano erupted unexpectedly. Magma was flowing towards three major cities at an alarming rate.” However, the semicolon suggests that there is a relationship between these two sentences.

You can usually tell from the context what the actual relationship is:
She works all day as a nurse in a retirement home; in addition, she is studying in the evenings to become a doctor.
Dr. Benaud is a French researcher; however, he lives in Antarctica.
Thousands of mites crossed the barrier from region A to region B every hour; therefore, it was not possible to count all of them.
Our main findings were that uninsured patients are most likely to visit the emergency room for their health care needs; that children, the elderly, and the unemployed are the groups most affected by lack of insurance; and that the uninsured are a heavy burden on hospitals.